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The majority (72%) felt that their doctors cared about them enough and did not withhold important information from them, but 21% said they were uncertain as to whether their doctors would withhold information. Fifty-three percent did not believe that prostate cancer was a common part of aging, but 34% were uncertain.

Overall, 53% of respondents and 55% of Blacks expressed uncertain feelings as to whether or not they were likely to develop prostate cancer. The majority (82%) believed that prostate cancer can be cured if detected early and 83% believed that screening is effective in finding the cancer early. Most (48%) were uncertain as to whether a person with prostate cancer will die within a few years and 43% did not believe they will die within a few years. Although 72% believed that men can have prostate cancer without having a family history of the disease, 25% were uncertain.

Generally, most respondents (60%) said that they wanted to do what their immediate family thought was important for detecting prostate cancer early. More Blacks (82%) than Whites (55%) said that they would do what their family member thought was important. Half (50%) said that they would get tested for prostate cancer if their wife or girlfriend told them to get a test.

Discussion
This exploratory analysis done with the use of descriptive statistics yielded some valuable results. It was found that most of the men in the sample did not find it difficult to obtain screening for prostate cancer. However, far too many did not avail themselves of this vital screening. That finding shows that while they have the sense that the screening is important, knowledge alone did not offer sufficient motivation to take decisive action to engage in health-seeking behaviors. Also, it was found that among those who had regular checkups, about half of the men did not discuss prostate cancer with their doctors. These findings are interesting in that they point to the fact that there are indeed barriers that short-circuit the motivation necessary for acting consistent with knowledge about this important health concern, prostate cancer. These findings are consistent with those of Fearing, et. al., 2000, and Etzioni, et. al., 2002).

Another interesting finding of the study was the lack of knowledge of the men about the presence of prostate cancer in their family history. This finding points to the need of men in this context to be sensitized to risk factors for prostate cancer and how to manage these risk factors. Doctors played a crucial role in the diagnosis of this problem. Therefore, patients should be invited to discuss the issue on their regular checkups and care should be taken to educate men about this problem

Participants were asked how difficult it was for them to obtain a screening test for prostate cancer. The majority (76%) reported that it was not difficult, 15% thought that it was difficult and 9% reported that they did not know whether or not it was difficult to obtain a screening test for prostate cancer. A little more than half of the sample (54%) reported that they had a prostate test within the last year, at the time the survey was conducted, but 46% did not have a test within that year. As to whether screening for prostate cancer was part of their regular medical check-up, 58% reported yes and 42% indicated that this was not a part of their regular check-up. More Whites (62%) than Blacks (57%) said that prostate screening was part of their regular medical check-ups. As to whether their doctor discussed prostate cancer or the need for screening with them, 50% said yes while the other 50% said no.

The television ranked highest as their source of information about prostate cancer, followed by their doctor and brochures at health centers. Participants were asked about their knowledge about screening tests for prostate cancer. Of the sample, 67% indicated that they knew what screening tests are done for detecting prostate cancer. There were 33% that did not know. Participants were asked about their family history of prostate cancer. Twenty-five percent did not know about their family history, and 22% said that they had a relative with prostate cancer. Of the relatives who had prostate cancer, 38% were fathers, 17% brothers, 19% cousins, and the rest were other relatives.

Of those who indicated that they had a relative with prostate cancer approximately 30% of them said that they had a prostate test within the last year. Only 13% of respondents said that they had experienced having prostate cancer themselves or were told that they had an enlarged prostate. When comparing Blacks and Whites on this question, more Blacks (15%) than Whites (10%) were told that they had cancer of an enlarged prostate. They were asked if they had a personal family doctor and 81% said yes, however, there were some differences when comparing Blacks and Whites. More Whites (92%) than Blacks (77%) reported having a personal family physician they can see on a regular basis.

When responding to attitudes and beliefs about prostate cancer screening, 84% either agreed or strongly agreed that if they had prostate cancer it would be serious enough to want to do something about it. Over 65% felt that the blood test for prostate cancer, PSA can detect the cancer early, 33% were not sure what tests were actually carried out and 42% believed that screening would be uncomfortable. Those who felt that the screening would be uncomfortable were also less likely to get screened.

Subject Selection
The priority population for this study was Black and White men age 40 and older residing in San Bernardino and Riverside Counties in California. A population-based convenience sample was selected from community clubs, churches, worksites, and bus stops. Men fitting the age criteria who volunteered to complete the questionnaire were included in the study, and the questionnaire was self-administered. Altogether, a sample of 214 men was obtained.
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Instrumentation
A structured questionnaire was developed and pre-tested among Black and White men (n=25) within the priority population. After review and final changes, this questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection for the present study. The questionnaire included 25 questions with several items to ascertain the respondents’ attitude towards prostate cancer screening and early detection, beliefs about prostate cancer, access to screening, prostate cancer information, and family history of prostate cancer. In addition, there were demographic questions such as age, education, income, marital status and occupation. Questions dealing with attitudes and beliefs about prostate cancer were measured using a five-point Likert Scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree). Participants were asked to respond to statements designed to measure attitudes and beliefs. This psychosocial scale for the measurement of attitudes and beliefs has been used for decades in various populations.

Procedure
Prior to conducting the survey, letters were sent to several churches and men’s organizations in the area explaining the purpose of the survey and asking them to encourage men within the age group to participate. Some churches and organizations responded positively and invited us to conduct the survey on a day and time designated by them. No follow-up was done on churches that did not respond. Men within the age criteria who volunteered to be in the study completed a questionnaire and returned it to the person collecting the data. Some church leaders and organizations asked that the questionnaires be left with them to be distributed to members. Completed questionnaires were returned in a sealed envelope. For anonymity, participants were asked not to write their names on the questionnaire. Both Black and White men were recruited to be part of the study.

Data Analysis
Data was entered and analyzed using the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS/PC) version 10. The data set was investigated for missing values and outliers, and irregular value recording. Descriptive information was calculated for all variables. Correlations were done on all major variables of interest for the present study.

Results
There were 214 who participated in the study and completed the survey. Of these, 75% were Black and 25% were White. Most (53%) were within the 40-50 years age group, 26% in the 51-60 age group, and 21% indicated that they were over 60 years old. Seventy-four percent were married, most had a college degree with a yearly income greater than $21,000. Approximately 39% reported earning $50,000 or more per year.

Black men have been shown to have a higher risk of prostate cancer when compared to men from other ethnic groups, and they also die at a younger age. Although many Black men are aware of the benefits of screening, they are less aware of limitations. Some researchers felt that decisions were made to participate in screening without fully understanding the necessity for screening. More information is needed to help them make informed decisions about prostate cancer screening for early detection (Taylor, et. al., 2001; Taylor, et. al., 2002). A study among African American men living in Philadelphia to ascertain how receptive they were to regular screening for prostate cancer, showed that African American males in that setting were willing to participate in annual prostate screening modalities. The study further indicated a need for education and advice about prostate cancer screening and prevention for Black men (Myers, et. al., 1996). This and other studies also indicate certain obstacles to screening and a need for education and advice about prostate cancer and participation in activities for early detection. Some obstacles to early detection included: being able to make and keep an appointment, and attitudes of other family members toward prostate screening. It is important to know that when the cancer is detected early, there can be a reduction in early mortality and an improvement in the quality of life as well. When the cancer the detected late, as in the case for many Black men, there is an increase in mortality and a faster rate of recurrence (Boyd, et. al., 2001; Kirby,1996; Banerjee, et. al, 2002).

A study of attitudes of Blacks toward prostate cancer screening trials was conducted in Los Angeles, California. Results indicated that African American males at the middle socio-economic level were more willing to participate in clinical trials when compared to those of lower socio-economic levels. The study also examined possible barriers to participation in screening and found that fear of medical experimentation and distrust for the “medical establishment” were main barriers for African Americans (Robinson, et. al., 1996). Differences in socio-economic status and survival after prostate for Black and White men are also supported by other studies (Robbins, et.al., 2000). Furthermore, younger Black men in a lower income bracket and with less education appear to have more prostate problems when compared to White men and the outcomes for treatment are not as promising for Black men who also experience poorer survival and increased mortality (Lubeck, et. al., 2001; Piffath, et. al., 2001; Walker, et. al., 1995).

The literature shows the importance to prostate cancer to men, especially to Black men. It further showed the importance of early detection in circumventing mortality rates as a result of prostate cancer. While many studies have focused on Black men and prostate cancer, many of them failed to investigate the factors that inhibit early detection. The present study seeks to fill this gap in the literature so as to affect better health seeking behaviors among Black and White men and to produce better outcomes with respect to prevention or early detection and treatment of prostate cancer.

The purpose of this study was to identify attitudes toward prostate cancer, screening practices and deterrents to early detection and treatment among Black and White men 40 years and older residing in San Bernardino and Riverside, California. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire developed and pre-tested among similar participants in the study. Two hundred and fourteen men participated in the study, of which 75% were Black and 25% White. The majority (53%) was between the ages of 40-50 years, and 74% were married. The study found that there was very little difference in socioeconomic status between Whites and Blacks. Most (34%) had a college degree, but more Whites (92%) had a personal family physician than Blacks (77%), and slightly more Whites (62%) than Blacks (57%) said that prostate screening was done regularly. Findings from this study should aid in the design and development of culturally appropriate programs that will detect prostate cancer in this population at an earlier stage when treatment is more successful.

Prostate cancer is an important concern for all men since it poses a health threat especially to men over the age of 40. However, there is a higher prevalence of this disease among Black men compared to men from other racial or ethnic groups in the United States. Actually, According to the American Cancer Society facts and figures (2002), American Blacks are seen as having the highest incidence rates of prostate cancer in the world. In general, Blacks are more likely to have prostate cancer detected at a later stage and the incidence as well as mortality rates of prostate cancer among Blacks are disproportionately higher than White males. Blacks are more prone to die from the disease when compared with Whites (Merrill, & Lyon, 2000). In addition to late detection, socioeconomic status is an important factor in the morbidity and mortality rates of prostate cancer (Boring, et. al. 1992; Bal, 1992). There is still a lack of knowledge regarding prostate cancer screening as well as symptoms and treatment modalities more so for Black men than for Whites (Nash & Hall, 2002).

Although prostate cancer incidence and mortality increased during the 1980s and 1990s, this was followed by a decrease that was promising. However, the rates continued to increase for Blacks during that same period (Sarma & Schottenfeld, 2002). During the period 1991-1998, the use of PSA tests among older adults (65 years and above) on Medicare were sampled to detect whether there was an increase or decrease in prostate cancer trends. The results showed that Black men in this age group were tested less often than Whites (Etzioni, et. al., 2002). It is not fully known how acceptable the PSA test is to Black men or whether this is even the best screening method for this population. Furthermore, an investigation of health beliefs and practices of Black men about prostate cancer screening showed that knowledge of prostate cancer was fairly high. They were also aware of early detection benefits and were regularly being screened. However, they did not believe that prostate cancer was preventable, but that it was important to have good health habits. Their faith was also important to them in staying healthy and they believed that treatment for prostate cancer would interfere with sexual function (Fearing, et. al. 2000).

The aim of this study was to apply the theory of planned behavior methodology to identify factors that influence the intention of pregnant Black to quit drinking alcohol. The findings support the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) as the direct measure variables were all significantly correlated with intention to quit drinking. The results in this study indicated that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control account for 55% of the variance in intention. This compares with 41% found in McMillian and Conner’s (2003) theory of planned behavior study which examined intention to quit drinking among college students.

This study is not without its limitations. The focus group and the questionnaire results were based on self reports. It is possible that the self reports underreported alcohol use or over reported abstinence, which is a limitation to the study. However, other studies have shown self reports regarding alcohol use to be valid (Brady, Gold, Killeen, Tyson, and Simpson, 2003; Del Boca and Darkes, 2003; Midanik, 1988).
A further limitation was that the variables for subjective norm and perceived control were highly intercorrelated and factor analysis was unable to identify underlying factors for these variables. An increased sample size may have yielded stable factors for normative and control beliefs.

The convenience sampling technique could have recruited study participants who, for various reasons, skewed results. In addition, incentives provided to participants may have recruited individuals simply because of the desire to receive the incentive.

This study, however, has provided considerable information which can augment current literature on the use of the theory of planned behavior in predicting intention for abstention from alcohol use. This study also provides additional information on factors related to drinking patterns associated with Black pregnant women.

Information gained could be used to develop interventions geared toward assisting Black pregnant women in quitting drinking during pregnancy. Respondents who believed that an improvement in health would result for both themselves and their baby had a more positive attitude toward abstention. Putting this together with the finding that increased perceived control over abstention went with having information about the bad things that would happen to their baby and seeing things about the effect of drinking on their baby provides a strong argument for emphasis on health in programs to increase abstinence during pregnancy. Such emphasis should include improved health for the mother and the baby, decreased risk for negative pregnancy related outcomes, and decreased risk for negative health outcomes later in the life of the baby.

Regression of attitude toward quitting drinking during pregnancy on factor scores showed that when women believed that quitting drinking would result in better health outcomes for their baby and themselves they had a more positive attitude toward quitting (β = .39, p <.0005). When women believed that quitting would increase their stress they had a negative attitude toward quitting (β = -.24, p =.001). See Appendix A for the path model showing the Pearson correlation and factor scores for attitudes toward abstaining. Predictors of Subjective Norm and Perceived Control
Factor analysis was unsuccessful in identifying a simple structure for the normative belief and perceived control variables probably due to a limited sample size and high multicollinearity. The simple Pearson correlation for normative beliefs and control beliefs did provide information relevant to one’s intention to quit. Appendix A shows a path model illustrating the association of the outcome, normative, and control belief optimally scaled scores with their corresponding theory of planned behavior variables. The path model shows that the five normative referents were highly predictive of the subjective norm to quit. All items for control beliefs were statistically significant predictors for perceived control to quit.

Differences between women who continued to drink and those who abstained when examining intention to quit drinking alcohol during pregnancy, based on the theory of planned behavior variables, significant differences between those who quit drinking during pregnancy and those who continued to drink were identified.

Women who continued to drink during pregnancy exhibit drinking patterns associated with problem drinking and/or addiction as shown in Table 3. It was also found that women who quit were closer to the end of their pregnancy. The following percentages represent the expectant due dates comparing those who quit vs. those who continued to drink, respectively: a) three or less months from now (76% vs. 24%), b) four to six months (42% vs. 58%), and c) more than six months (33% vs. 67%).

Summary of Result Findings
All three variables of the theory of planned behavior predicted intention to quit drinking alcohol. The correlation for attitude was .61 (p = .000) followed closely by perceived control .60 (p = .000). The subjective norm also had significant correlation with the intention to quit drinking alcohol during pregnancy .56 (p = .000). Once the correlation values were corrected for attenuation the values for each theory variable were .77, .80, and .89 for subjective norm, attitude, and perceived control respectively, indicating that perceived control best predicts intention. Calculations of attenuation corrected correlations used the Cronbach Alpha’s values of each scale as estimates of reliability and used the standard formula as found in StatSoft, Inc. (2006) among other places. Attitude was best predicted by the underlying factor of beliefs associated with improved health .39 (p = .000). All normative beliefs predicted the subjective norm well. Resources to reduce stress and increase one’s self efficacy in quitting best predict perceived control. The R2 for the multiple regression, indicating how effectively the theory of planned behavior variables predict intention to quit was .55 (p = .000). In addition, significant differences were found between the drinking patterns of women who quit and those who continued to drink.

Correlations and regressions of the optimally scaled variables with their corresponding attitude, subjective norm, or perceived control scale was run. Collinearity statistics of the regression indicated that all of the variables were highly correlated. To correct the multicollinearity problem a factor analysis using a principle axis extraction and oblimin rotation was conducted on the following: (a) the optimally scaled outcome belief products, (b) the optimally scaled normative belief products, and (c) the optimally scaled control belief products.

Two techniques were used to identify differences in those who quit drinking and those who continued to drink during pregnancy. The mean values for the intention to quit, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control were compared. In addition, a crosstabulation was done on categorical variables for the demographic questions and questions regarding drinking patterns. A Bonferroni adjustment was done to decide which variables were statistically significant.

Characteristics of Participants
A total of 148 surveys were analyzed. The average age of the women completing the questionnaire was 26, with the age range being 18 to 43. Half of the women (77) reported that they had completed high school. In addition, 62% (92) of the women report an annual family income of $20,000 or less. Women were also asked to report when their baby was expected. Thirty-nine percent (58) indicated that they were expecting in four to six months, 32% (47) expected their baby within the next three months, and 29% (43) expected their baby to be born in more than six months.

A total of 21 women reported quitting drinking during their pregnancy. The remaining 127 women reported being current alcohol drinkers of which 16% (24) were heavy drinkers, 33% (49) average drinkers and 37% (54) light drinkers. Respondents were asked if they ever drank more than five drinks in one occasion. Just over half (61% or 89) reported drinking more than five alcoholic beverages, constituting binge drinking, at least once. Approximately half of the women (55% or 81) also reported being unable to remember what they did while under the influence of alcohol at least once. Finally, the overwhelming majority of women (80%, 119) indicated that they did not require an alcoholic beverage to get going in the morning.

Reliability of the Questionnaire Scales
Internal consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha) for the theory of planned behavior variables were .76, .77, .70 and .60 for intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control, respectively.

Predictors of Attitude
Two underlying outcome factors were identified—abstention would improve the health of the baby and the mother and abstention would increase stress.

The survey also included questions regarding drinking patterns and questions to ascertain the demographics of the study participants.

Data Collection for the Quantitative Study
The second phase of data collection used the questionnaire developed from the focus group process. The purpose of the study was explained to those who volunteered to participate and the questionnaire was distributed to women agreeing to participate and who were attending the Black Infant Health and Women Infant and Children (WIC) classes on the days designated for data collection. Respondents were informed that consent to participate in the study was established by completing the survey. To encourage honesty in survey responses, respondents were informed that no identifying information was included in the survey, therefore, the survey responses could not be tied back to any particular respondent. In addition, respondents were instructed not to include their names on the questionnaire. As an incentive, women received a five-dollar gift certificate upon completion of the survey.

Data Analysis for the Quantitative Study
Responses to the questionnaire were entered into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis. Surveys were excluded from the analysis if they were less than 80% complete and if the participant failed to meet inclusion criteria for alcohol use prior to or during pregnancy. Of the 179 collected a total of 148 met the inclusion criteria. Women who reported never having consumed alcohol were excluded from the analysis. Frequency statistics were done on all variables. Missing values were imputed with the expectation maximization algorithm for cases not missing more than 20% of responses. All available variables were used for imputation in accordance with Schafer and Graham’s (2002) recommendations. Due to low participant responses for normative beliefs only 5 of the 23 normative beliefs, identified via the focus groups, were included in the quantitative analysis.

Several questions were included in the survey to identify intention, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control. Cronbach’s alpha were calculated for the multiple questions regarding intention, attitude, subjective norm, and consistency on the questions. A multiple regression was run for the theory of planned behavior variables to determine which elements of the theory predict the intention to quit. The theory of planned behavior is based on expectancy value models which require measurement of two variables for each salient belief underlying the attitude, subjective norm and perceived control and that products be formed from each of these pairs. For example, each outcome belief is multiplied times the value of that outcome. However, the theory also suggests that the beliefs and values can be scaled by adding or subtracting a constant prior to multiplying the two. For example, if the outcome value had been measured on a scale running from 1 to 7, 4 might be subtracted from the value chosen by each respondent to yield a value score running from -3 for a rating of a negative valued outcome to +3 for a positively valued outcome. Since different scaling procedures give different results when the product terms are formed, Ajzen (2006) recommends an optimal scaling procedure which we used to maximize the correlation between the product terms and the intended prediction. Some researchers (e.g., French and Hankins, 2003) have objected to this use of optimal scaling as being overly complicated and theoretically unclearly justified but we elected to follow Ajzen’s recommendations.

One problem with optimal scaling is that numerous scaling parameters can produce very similar correlations with the outcome variables and some of these may be positive and some negative. For example, in our study one outcome was that the mother would be healthier if she abstained from drinking. Participants rated the likelihood of that outcome and its value. The optimal scaling procedure resulted in scaling parameters of -27.499 for the outcome and -22.715 for its value. This produced a correlation of -.4204. However, if the scaling parameters were set to +30 and +18 the resulting correlation was +.4196—a correlation with a difference in absolute magnitude from the optimally scaled amount of only .0008 but completely different in direction. Thus, different scaling parameters can produce essentially the same magnitude of correlation but different signs for the correlation. How should we choose the direction of the correlation? We chose the sign based on the simple correlations of the outcome likelihood by itself and the outcome value by itself with the attitude. In the example just discussed, both of these had positive correlations so we chose a positive sign. This process also had the advantage of making conceptual sense as one would expect that mothers who believed that abstention would make them more healthy would have a positive attitude toward abstention rather than the negative attitude that a strict adherence to the optimal scaling procedure would suggest. A similar procedure was followed for subjective norms and perceived control.

This cross-sectional study among Black pregnant women examined factors influencing their intention to quit drinking alcohol while pregnant. Participants included in this study were Black pregnant women 18 to 45 years old who attended Women Infants and Children (WIC) clinics or Black Infant Health programs in Riverside and San Bernardino communities. Following, the methodology recommended by Ajzen (2002) the study had two phases: a qualitative phase designed to elicit salient beliefs regarding drinking alcohol while pregnant and a quantitative phase that examined how those beliefs related to the behavior through attitude, subjective norm and perceived control regarding the behavior.
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Qualitative Design
The qualitative process included the use of open-ended questions with four focus group participants to elicit: (a) beliefs associated with outcomes of quitting drinking alcohol during pregnancy; (b) the individuals or groups of people who would or would not support them in their attempt to quit; and (c) any factors or circumstances that would influence quitting drinking alcohol during pregnancy.

Subject Recruitment for the Qualitative Study
Subject Recruitment. Recruitment flyers were distributed at Ob/Gyn and WIC clinics where Black women accessed services. An Outreach worker was involved in the recruitment process. Recruitment was facilitated by offering a twenty-dollar gift certificate to focus group participants. A convenience sampling technique was utilized to solicit volunteers for the study who met the inclusion criteria for the study.

Data Collection for the Qualitative Study
The purpose of the study and the consent form was reviewed prior to the start of any focus groups. Each focus group participant gave signed consent for participation. At the beginning of each focus group session written responses were gathered regarding factors relating to Black pregnant women quitting drinking during pregnancy. This written response was followed by a dialogue from each participant which was tape recorded. At the end of each session, a twenty-dollar gift certificate was given to each participant. The information gathered from each group was transcribed, sorted for specific information and utilized to construct the questionnaire for quantitative data collection, using Ajzen’s 2002 conceptual and methodological guidelines.

Data Analysis for the Qualitative Study
Written responses, gathered from the focus group, were obtained from 14 of 22 participants. The 14 written responses and the transcribed dialogue from the focus groups resulted in 22 outcome beliefs, 23 normative beliefs, and 19 control beliefs which were the basis for the quantitative survey.

Quantitative Design
The quantitative design resulted in the development and analysis of a five-page survey. Using the focus group information from the qualitative study the quantitative questionnaire was developed based on Ajzen’s (2002) guidelines.

Subject Recruitment for the Quantitative Study
Recruitment flyers were distributed at Black Infant Health sites and WIC clinics where Black women access perinatal services. A convenience sampling technique was utilized to solicit volunteers for the study who met the inclusion criteria for the study. In addition, participants were given a five-dollar gift certificate once surveys were completed.